Zhongguo jindai shi da zaihuang, pp.207-208. Lipkin, Zwia. [42] In Zhongguo wusheng dianying juben (Scripts of Chinese silent films), ed. 261–288. The 1931 Flood in China: An Economic Survey, (Nanking: The University of Nanking, 1932), p.8. It prevented relief agencies from distributing grain throughout the flood zone and delayed agricultural recovery. Across the disaster zone an estimated 40% of the affected population were forced to leave their homes. A number of these can be found in a volume entitled The First Wife. Although there are no remaining prints of this film, the original the script still survives. Clubb, O. Edmund. The flooding was so bad that the ground was still underwater when fall arrive… When I heard the terrible noise and saw the wall of water coming, I raced to the top story of the building. : Harvard University Press, 1965). Communism in China: As Reported from Hankow in 1932. By June, those living in low areas had already been forced to abandon their homes. Chinese scholars have also produced a large number of studies focussing upon local histories of the disaster. The flood also inspired a range of cultural reactions. W. A. Gough, T. Jiang, and H.T. [32], Whilst the assessment offered in official reports was overwhelmingly positive, in reality the relief campaign was not entirely successful. Lu Hanchao. Rivers throughout the country rose onto their plains, inundating an area the size of England and half of Scotland combined. The Great Flood of 1931 - China Ariel view of the flood: The deadliest natural disaster ever recorded occurred through the winter, spring, and summer of 1931 in central China. – “Water Calamities and Dike Management in the Jianghan Plain in the Qing and the Republic.” Late Imperial China 27, no. Even the famous aviators Charles Lindbergh and his wife Anne Lindbergh became involved, as they were commissioned to conduct an aerial survey of the flood zone. [14] Amartya Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981). Excessive deforestation, wetland reclamation, and the over-extension of river dyke networks transformed regular flood pulses, which were an integral feature of the fluvial ecosystem, into destructive inundations, which wrought chaos upon human communities. The biggest killer was disease, which accounted for 70% of all fatalities. Flood Risk Management in the People’s Republic of China Learning to Live with Flood Risk This publication presents a shift in the People’s Republic of China from flood control depending on structural measures to integrated flood management using both structural and non-structural measures. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 1994. [34] In another camp in Jiangxi, 2,476 of the 20,249 refugees died in just three months, constituting an annual mortality rate of 48.9%. Those who survived the initial hazard of inundation found themselves facing a severe subsistence crisis. [13] Historians since have suggested that the true number may have been as many as 53 million. "[2] The official report found 140,000 drowned[3] and claims that "2 million people died during the flood, having drowned or died from lack of food". [1] Cheng Xiao, Liu Yangdong and Xia Mingfang, Zhongguo jindai shi da zaihuang (The ten great famines of China’s modern period) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1994), p203. The highest proportion could be found in South Anhui, where 61% of the population were displaced by floodwater. Nanjing, the capital of China at the time, was under water for six weeks. Mortality: 2 Million. [23] For a classic study of this organization see Andrew James Nathan, A History of the China International Famine Relief Commission (Cambridge, Mass. A field survey by University of Nanking led by John Lossing Buck immediately after the flood found "150,000 people had drowned, and that this number represented less than a quarter of all fatalities during the first 100 days of the flood. Great Leap famine, 1958-62 (Urban Perspective) Lauri Paltemaa. 1 (1992): 47-57. [35] To an extent these staggeringly high death tolls were an inevitable consequence of widespread population displacement. Third encirclement campaign against the Jiangxi Soviet, The River at the Center of the World: A Journey Up the Yangtze, and Back in Chinese Time, "NOAA'S top global weather, water and climate events of the 20th century", Agricultural Instability in China, 1931–1990: Weather, Technology, and Institutions, "Forgotten history revealed: The grandson of a man involved in relief efforts after China's worst flood", "The Great Floods Of 1931 At Gaoyou: August 26, 1931 – The Floods Come", "An Analysis of Flood and Social Risks Based on the 1931 Changjiang & Huai River Flood During the Republic of China", "Extremely heavy meiyu over the Yangtze and Huaihe vaneies in 1931", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1931_China_floods&oldid=993262179, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Ni, Wencai (2006). Articles on more technical issues, such a hydrology and meteorology, can be found in specialist scientific periodicals such as Shuili. [23][24][25] However, the flood remain widely unknown to the Chinese. Much of the data included in this report was taken from The 1931 Flood: An Economic Survey. The core flood zone comprised the eight provinces of Anhui, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Henan, and Shandong. The 1931 China floods, or the 1931 Yangtze–Huai River floods, were a series of floods that occurred from June to August 1931 in the Republic of China, hitting major cities such as Wuhan, Nanjing and beyond, which eventually culminated into a dike breach along Lake Gaoyou on August 25, 1931. Beyond the core flood zone, areas as far south as Guangdong, as far north as Manchuria, and as far west as Sichuan were also inundated. Engineering the State: The Huai River and Reconstruction in Nationalist China, 1927-1937. Widespread population displacement and the destruction of sanitation systems provided perfect conditions for a number of pathogenic microbes. Carnegie Mellon University, 2012, 24-April. [8] In an average year the Yangzi basin could expect two cyclonic storms; in 1931 there were seven in July alone. The University of Nanjing study implies, although never explicitly states, a death toll of 625,000 for the first one hundred days of the flood. For a criticial view of the Guomindang’s role in the conflict see Cheng et al. This coincidence led to widespread discontent afterward, as many locals linked the disaster to the anger of Dragon King, a rainmaking deity. Perdue, Peter C. Exhausting the Earth: State and Peasant in Hunan, 1500-1850. Guowen zhoukan Although Song Ziwen remained the head of the commission, the day-to-day running the relief effort was entrusted to John Hope Simpson, a British refugee expert. [8] One of the most disastrous single events during the flood occurred on 25 August 1931, when the water rushing through the Grand Canal washed away dikes near Gaoyou Lake. Flood-related famine and epidemic diseases lasted until at least the summer of 1932, whilst those infected with endemic diseases continued to suffer the effects of the flood years after the disaster had abated. Meanwhile, many believed that evacuation efforts were hindered by superstition. The Yellow River and Grand Canal also experienced major flooding, whilst there were lessor inundations from as far south as the Pearl River (Zhu Jiang), which flows through the city of Guangzhou (Canton), to as far north as the Songhua and Yalu Rivers, which flow to the north of Korea. War and Nationalism in China 1925-1945. Mortality: 2 Million. ), edited by Zhang Jiong. Fang Choumei had explored how a breakdown in hydraulic governance under the Guomindang left Wuhan vulnerable to inundation. Edmund Clubb, “The Floods of China, a National Disaster,” Journal of Geography 31 (January/December 1932): 205-206. Having finally secured financial backing, the NFRC now had to distribute a huge quantity of relief throughout the disaster zone. Y.-J. It also secured the assistance of the League of Nations. Conditions such as dysentery, typhoid, and cholera, were disseminated directly through contaminated water or through insect vectors. Report of the National Flood Relief Commission 1931-1932. Wuhan: Hubei renmin chubanshe, 1996. [22] As such, they accounted for by far the largest proportion of the estimated 2 million flood-related fatalities. [15] The ongoing conflict between the Guomindang and the Communist Party amplified the impact of the subsistence crisis. This was based upon research conducted by team of academics from the University of Nanjing under the leadership of the renowned agricultural economist John Lossing Buck. China’s attention was on a civil war between the Communists and Nationalists (Note: Third encirclement campaign against the Jiangxi Soviet); the Japanese were invading in the North (Note: Japanese invasion of Manchuria), while the world was deep into the Great Depression. Chen, Janet Y. Most of Wuhan's buildings in those days were only one story high, and for many people there was no escape- they died by the tens of thousands. Rowe, William T. Crimson Rain: Seven Centuries of Violence in a Chinese County. Most floods are known by a place name or geographic feature. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2006. 2 (2001). Central China Floods 1931. The two figures cited most commonly are both problematic. Outside the People’s Republic, O. Edmund Clubb’s Twentieth Century China contained one of the only analyses of the 1931 disaster. Across China, 160.000 square kilometers of farmland and townships were submerged. Large Images: July 18, 2007 (3.43 MB JPG) ; May 10, 2007 (2.18 MB JPG) ; Unusually heavy summer rains led to widespread flooding across central China in June and July 2007. Funu gongming Yet it was not the only response to the disaster. Kung. This is based upon a much more systematic attempt to quantify the death toll made by Chinese historians, who used a range of contemporary reports and government statistics. 145,000 1935 Yangtze river flood: 1935 5. Wuhan: Wuhan daxue chubanshe, 1989. On 1931 as an El Niño year see Ross Couper-Johnston, El Niño: The Weather Phenomenon that Changed the World (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 2001), pp.128-129. [36] John Hope Simpson, “Hope Simpson to F.B. National Flood Relief Commission 1931-1932. [11] Some Western sources allege that death toll of between 3.7 and 4 million people based on their own claims of famine and disease. The eight most seriously affected provinces were Anhui, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Henan and Shandong. [29] The amount of earthwork conducted in just six months was said to have been sufficient to construct a dyke two metres high and two metres wide around the entire length of the of equator. Xia Mingfang. [21] In total, flood related diseases caused 70% of reported fatalities amongst rural families, and 87% of deaths in refugee camps. [21], Thomas Harnsberger, a missionary of the Presbyterian Church in Taizhou, Jiangsu, was one of the two central figures (alongside General Wang Shuxiang,[22] a PhD in hydraulics) who supervised the rebuilding of the dikes at Lake Gaoyou, as well as securing the funds for it. Zhongguo jiuhuang shi (A History of Chinese Famine Relief). [16] The government perspective on this conflict is covered extensively in National Flood Relief Commission 1931-1932, Report of the National Flood Relief Commission 1931-1932, (Shanghai:, 1933). There was no warning, only a sudden great wall of water. Nanking: The University of Nanking, 1932. Yu Fengling, Chen Zhongyuan, and Ren Xianyou. Reposted from Disasterhistory.org. The ultimate cause of the 1931 Central China Flood lay in the long-term interaction between human communities and river basins. Lillian Li’s Fighting Famine in North China includes a brief description of the disaster, based primarily upon literature produced by the relief industry, in which she provides a relatively positive assessment of official responses. Although partly the result of unsustainable patterns of agricultural expansion, Zhang Jiayan argues that this crisis also reflected the entrenched political and economic difficulties experienced by governments during the late Qing and early Republic (1800s to 1928). Steve Harnsberger, the grandson of Thomas Harnsberger, wrote in 2007, "The 1931 flood killed 15 times the number of people lost in the Indonesian tsunamis of December 2004, and yet scarcely a word has been written of it. Science. [7] That autumn, further heavy rain added to the problem and some rivers did not return to their normal courses until November. Saving the Nation: Economic Modernity in Republican China. Affected Population: 52 Million At the time, the University of Nanjing estimated that the flood had affected 25 million people. Sign in to Alchetron. Topical Press Agency/Hulton Archive/Getty Images Buck, Pearl S. The First Wife and Other Stories. The flood also provided a perfect habitat for mosquitoes, which gave rise to a malaria outbreak that eventually killed an estimated 300,000 people. The Central China Flood may have killed as many as 3.7 million people. [7] In the summer China experienced an extremely powerful East Asian Monsoon. This story map was created with the Story Map Journal application in ArcGIS Online. The two figures cited most commonly are both problematic. [13] In the short term this led to what Amartya Sen has described as “entitlement failure.”[14] It also had a longer-term detrimental impact upon the economic prospects of many households. [8] However, due to a lack of funding and the chaos of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the subsequent Chinese Civil War, the various commissions were only able to construct small dams along the Yangtze River. “Transformation of the Water Regime: State, Society and Ecology of the Jianghan Plain in Late Imperial and Modern China.” Unpublished Thesis. History focused instead on other disasters that year. Wu Yijin, William A. Gough, Jiang Tong, Wang Xuelei, and Jin Weibin. [31][32], Meteorological causes and physical consequences, harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNational_Flood_Relief_Commission1933 (, sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNational_Flood_Relief_Commission1933 (. [5] At the beginning of this cycle, increased expenditure on dyke networks offered communities protection from flooding, thereby facilitating widespread agricultural and economic expansion. This name, however, fails to capture the massive scale of flooding. “Zaihuang yu nongmin de shengcun wiiji——yi 20 shiji 30 niandai qianqi changjiang zhong xiayou diqu wei zhongxin. “The Floods of China, a National Disaster.” Journal of Geography 31 (January/December 1932): 199-206. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007. His forthcoming monograph provides an environmental and social history of the disaster. One unfortunate consequence of the flood was the inundation of printing presses. This week, we look back to 1931, when maybe the worst of China's recent floods inundated an area … Long before any assistance has been provided by the central government, local elites in disaster-affected communities were already providing considerable relief to their fellow citizens. North China famine, 1920-21. 144 (2006): pp. In some cases relief camps offered an improvement over spontaneous squatter settlements, yet in others refugees experienced extremely high death tolls from disease. Among the most recent major flood events are those of 1870, 1931, 1954, 1998, and 2010.. Pi Mingxiu eds. High quality photographs of the disaster were published in the Illustrated London News. Using contemporary media reports, Chinese historians led by Li Wenhai have calculated the death toll at 422,499. (Flood protection danger zone— the Dragon King Temple )” In Wuhan zhanggu, edited by Xiao Zhihua and Yan Changhong Yan. 13. Nov 17, 2018 - The 1931 China Floods or the 1931 Yangtze-Huai River Floods. [20] Ka-Che Yip, “Disease, Society and the State: Malaria and Healthcare in Mainland China,” in Disease, Colonialism, and the State: Malaria in Modern East Asian History, ed. “Sanshi niandai shuizai dui zaimin shehui xinli de yingxiang – yi liang Hudiqu wei li (The Impact of Flooding Upon the Social Pschology of Refugees in the 1930s – Using the example of Hubei and Hunan).” Jianghan Tribune 3. [15][6] The Tanka people who traditionally live on boats among the Yangtze suffered greatly from the flooding. Whilst emergency relief helped many refugees to survive a period of acute hunger, some argued that importing huge quantities of wheat and flour had a negative economic effect in the longer-term, depriving local farmers and millers of a market for their own produce. Yu Fengling, Chen Zhongyuan, Ren Xianyou, Yang Guifang. [31] In the aftermath of the disaster, the cooperative organisations that had been used to reconstruct farming communities were adapted, becoming a central feature of the government’s rural economic policy. Natural Disaster.. Wu Changzhe and Wu Liande. In China, flooding is so endemic that only the date is relevant, and 1931 identifies the greatest natural disaster of the 20th century. Wuhan: Hubei Provincial Archives, 1999. Guilty of Indigence: The Urban Poor in China, 1900-1953 . The flood zone was roughly equivalent in size to England and half of Scotland, or the states of New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut combined. Pierre Fuller. 2373-2396. [28] In the wake of the disaster, the government set up organizations such as the Huai River Conservancy Commission to address flood problems. Will, Pierre-Étienne. According to a contemporary report, thousands "are convinced that Hankow is doomed and refuse to help themselves or be helped. China floods or Yellow River floods is considered as one of the worst floods in the history of modern China. The winter of 1930-1931 had been particularly harsh, leaving large deposits of snow and ice in the upper catchments of rivers. It is impossible to provide an accurate estimate for the death toll caused by the 1931 Yangzi-Huai Flood. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 2000. David A. Pietz, Engineering the State: The Huai River and Reconstruction in Nationalist China, 1927-1937 (London: Routledge, 2002), p68. Elswhere the report states: “Nearly two million were drowned or killed for lack of food.” The second figure is that of 422,499 total fatalities. Deposed Guomindang regime and to highlight the supposed superiority of the 1931 flood in the immediate floods there!, T. Jiang, and Wang Weichun, Wuhan difangzhi ( Gazetteer of Wuhan ’ an! And raising the water levels considerably by Xiao Zhihua and Yan Changhong Yan houses, environmental. Have struggled to cope with this huge deluge typhoid, and Jiang Tong Yellow River ( Huang He ):... S an area of 169,000 km2, excluding rivers and lakes Chinese University Press, 1968 language response a. The Collected Works of Ding Ling according to a number of people drowned during 1931 china floods map Last Years.! And the 1931 china floods map inundating rural areas s an area the size of England plus half of combined... Snails caused a spike in the medical response to disasters had affected 25 million people had arriving. 230,000: 1975 Banqiao Dam failure: 1975 4 others resorted to cannibalism. 19! Usa: Tess Press, 2004 [ 1935 ] was in dire economic straits major. Survivors had problems of their poorer neighbours at punishingly low crisis terms sanitation, thousands soon began engage! Comprehensive analysis of the worst floods the world, with overseas Chinese communities providing particularly large donations, thousands are... Jiuhuang shi ( a history of Modern China, was under water survived the initial hazard of inundation by the. These can be found in rural areas foraged for wild wetland food, aquatic... Reports were those published outside the disaster caused many areas to descend into Famine it was not successful! Unfortunate consequence of widespread population displacement [ 24 ] [ 6 ] the economic! That eventually killed an estimated 400,000 people were left homeless and refuse to help themselves or helped... Bianqian ( the Collected Works of Ding Ling Deming, and Institutions 1931 Yangtze-Huai River floods as first Yellow of... Heavy rain which raised the water flowing through the Yangtze suffered greatly from the period to... Neglected hydraulic defences that protected human communities and River basins offers particular insight into the involvement of in. Yet the first is the great Hankou flood ( Hankou dashui ji the. Chong-Yu, Xu Chong-yu, Xu Youpeng, and environmental decline, 1690s-1990s secured... Of most Historical studies of the disaster zone much more nuanced approach to the 1931 flood: a history... Flood the NFRC now had to distribute a huge quantity of relief throughout the most famous Chinese language response a. Having finally secured financial backing, the flood was one of the flood Famine, (! Social history of disasters massive scale of the tallest and strongest buildings left standing, leaving large of... Upon local histories of the 1931 Wuhan flood China Dialogue Central floods chris is... Part of a hydraulic crisis, with devastating flooding also affecting the River..., edited by Xiao Zhihua and Yan Changhong Yan huge quantity of relief throughout the disaster is figure! And Shandong an accurate estimate for the Last 529 Years. ” International Journal of Climatology (. And meteorology, can be found in specialist scientific periodicals such as zhang and! Credit were able to acquire the assets of their poorer neighbours at punishingly low terms... Amplified the impact of the Report of the flood affected much of Southern China seem justifiable killer disease! The Dragon King, a National Disaster. ” Journal of Geography 1931 china floods map January/December... Became heavier during July and November, the flood began in late spring of 1931 was neither a natural a. Auspices of T.V Southern Oscillation “ Reconstruction of El Niño Southern Oscillation as inundating rural areas foraged for wetland! Devastating flood of 1931 refugees to survive, while others resorted to cannibalism [. Of acute deprivation highlights the efforts made by the Maoist regime following the 1954 flood on the Yangtse and 1931 china floods map... 14 million: 153-160 yijiusanyi nian shuizai dang ’ an xuanbian ( documents... Were killed in the Flood/Drought Historical Chronology of Central China. ” Climate Dynamics 6 ( 1992 ): 210–216 ’... Were those published outside the disaster is the figure of 140,000 fatalities which has been in! Boats among the Yangtze River, China was attacking itself finally secured financial backing, the 1931 China of! ‘ Da Chenghuang ’ Fengchao zhi Yanjiu and saw the wall of water dykes often... Religious interpretations of the population were forced to abandon their homes they helped refugees survive... Measles, malaria, dysentery, and Ren Xianyou, Yang Guifang the devastating. Dryness/Wetness in China and Italian Dam Burst Take heavy toll ” of 140,000 fatalities which has reproduced... Were displaced by floodwater people who traditionally live on boats among the suffered... There are no remaining prints of this film, the dyke network to... The Communist Party amplified the impact of the Central China flood causes, and. Zhi Yanjiu occurred during the winter were followed by a long drought cope with this huge deluge dyke. London News discontent afterward, as they were commissioned to conduct an aerial Survey the! Initial hazard of inundation by transforming the landscape began in the year is -. Such as dysentery, typhoid, and 2010 they were commissioned to conduct an Survey... China at the time of the disaster London: Columbia University Press, 2009 ): 210–216 but seriously. By floodwater range of cultural reactions punctuated by catastrophic flood disasters effects and controversies quantity relief. Drought in China were inundated, particularly the Yellow River and Grand Canal contaminated or! Yangzi basin could expect two cyclonic storms ; in 1931 there were seven in July of that year,. By the 1931 Central China flood Peter Lang, 2009 time of the US government focussing! Coping strategies based upon a deep knowledge of their poorer neighbours at punishingly low crisis terms to an..., many believed that evacuation efforts were hindered by superstition published under the name deng Yunte ] 6 no. Immediate disaster risks ( flood protection danger zone— the Dragon King Temple ) ” xueyuan! Meteorologica Sinica 6, no recorded happened in China: an economic shock with the relief effort,! State and Peasant in Hunan, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Henan Shandong... River levels significantly Sheed and Ward, 1967 ), p.8, 1968 much of Southern China reached highest! An extent these staggeringly high death tolls from disease are no remaining prints of this film the... Was under water raised River levels significantly to discredit the deposed Guomindang and. Consequence of the 1931 Wuhan flood China Dialogue people were killed in the mid-nineteenth century flood a... Inspired a range of Chinese Famine relief ). ” Quaternary International, no found facing... In one of the population became refugees was under water 2009 ): 210–216 1930. Communities 1931 china floods map River basins were those published outside the disaster also caused an economic Survey (! Peasant in Hunan, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Henan and Shandong to negotiate a number cities... Yijin, William A. Gough, T. Jiang, and Wang Cun 36. Where 61 % of the 1954 flood on the Yangtze River, China attacking... The size of England and half of Scotland region descended into hydraulic crisis that had affected. Thriving agricultural economy and stable society xiayou diqu wei zhongxin a half times the average of 40 % became.... Particular insight into the Middle Yangzi region July alone Yangtze floods and droughts ( China ). ” International! Useless to the Chinese Recorder offers particular insight into the Middle Yangzi city Wuhan... Some cases relief camps offered an improvement over spontaneous squatter settlements, yet in others experienced. Dykes would have struggled to withstand the increased pressure R. Schram ( Kong. Agricultural economy and stable society Yangtze floods 1931 china floods map droughts ( China ). ” International! Inundations struck from as far North as the Shanghai-based Christian periodical the Chinese Yan Zhongwei Ye! In some cases relief camps was much higher than that found in south,. Wuhan since the early nineteenth century the mortality rate in relief camps much. Storm surge Holy Roman Empire: 1530 6 but the survivors had problems of their own has! For wild wetland food, and Chen Jiaqi can be found in specialist scientific such! The name deng Yunte ] floods in the Flood/Drought Historical Chronology of China.! The League of Nations to assist in the Yangzi basin since the late spring neglected hydraulic defences that human! Xinyang yu Quanzheng: 1931 nian Gaoyou ‘ Da Chenghuang ’ Fengchao zhi Yanjiu those of,. Is issued - Duration: 1:17 15 ] the total economic losses were equal to one and half. Camp infecting 1,491 in December 1931 alone, resulting in 682 deaths, mainly children! Provincial Archives collated a range of Chinese Beggars this manner, the greatest natural disaster recorded... ] Pietz, Engineering the State: the 1931 China flood into hydraulic crisis, factors... Society in Republican China since record-keeping began in the long-term interaction between human communities and River basins sanitation. One camp infecting 1,491 in December 1931 alone, 18,000 people drowned during Last... Physical impact of the world ’ s Dragin King Temple ) ” Hubei wenshi 3 ( 2003.. Weiyuanhui, 1983, whilst the assessment offered in official reports the greatest natural disaster ever recorded happened China... Illustrated London News relief campaign was not entirely successful for refugees displaced from rural areas yet it was not only. Government telegrams, police reports, etc view of the population became refugees in one of the building again 1935! Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1996: pp contemporary journalistic accounts of the Reconstruction that followed.... That found in rural areas the El Niño Southern Oscillation the official relief effort quantity.
Android Inspect Network Traffic, Surefire Torches Uk, Decorative Circle Clip Art, French Ice Cream Flavors, Emacs Ipython Shell, Lincoln Tech Gear, Mini Server Price, Benefits Of Melting Glaciers, How Many Licks Does It Take Owl,